Until the late 19th century, patients undergoing even minor surgery had about as much chance of dying afterwards as they did of surviving. English surgeon Joseph Lister dramatically improved patients’ chances in the 1870s, by introducing antiseptics into surgery.
In 1865, Lister read a report by French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) suggesting that fermentation and rotting are caused by airborne micro-organisms. Pasteur also showed how micro-organisms could be killed by heat, filtration or chemical attack.
